Because of the extensive damage caused by the chinch bug, a significant amount of research has been devoted to controlling this grass pest. At the present time, the main weapon against the spread of the chinch bug has been the use of pesticides. Most of the research has been focused on finding a method of control that is more environmentally friendly as well as one that is economically sensible.

The chinch bug was first discovered in 1783 in Orange County, North Carolina. This bug infests mainly the southern United States with only small populations in the western states. The southern chinch bug has a distinct preference for St. Augustine grass which has made it the second most expensive plant feeding arthropod in Florida. The southern chinch bug loves the warm damp weather during the summer and peaks during the month of July. Although most of damage done by the southern chinch bug is done during the summer, it remains active during the winter months using the shelter of the base and roots of the grass for protection from the cold. Within Florida, the most severe damage is done in the central and southern counties.

The chinch bug is an amazing insect. Typically it travels by land and can cover as much as 400 feet in under an hour moving from an overly infested area of grass to a fresh patch. The southern chinch bug has the ability to fly, but only a small number of the insects use this method of transportation preferring to travel on the ground.

An adult female will deposit approximately 250 eggs during her lifetime depositing as few as 4 eggs in a day. However, the female chinch bug will continue to deposit eggs on a continuous basis for many weeks. The eggs hatch in approximately 6 to 13 days with an average of around 11 days. During the winter months, this process can last a month or more.

Areas of a lawn infested with chinch bugs are circular in nature and discolored. Lawns most vulnerable to chinch bug attacks are those that are water-stressed. The damage begins at the edges of the lawn or water-stressed area or where the grass is in full sunlight. St. Augustine grass that is grown in areas that are high and dry and in soil that is sandy or shell are in the most danger of chinch bug infestation.

Nematodes that live in the soil are very small and most of them can only be seen using a microscope. A typical sod farm has many kinds of nematodes, most of which are beneficial as they feed on bacteria, fungi, or other microscopic organisms. There are also nematodes that can be used as biological weapons to use against other turf pests. However, one group of nematodes that are significant pests for sod farmers are the plant-parasitic nematodes that feed on plants.

Plant-parasitic nematodes have a stylet or mouth-spear that is styled much like a hypodermic needle. These pests use the stylet to inject digestive juices into plant cells. Plant-parasitic nematodes all feed on roots, however, some feed by sticking their stylet into the root (ectoparasitic nematodes) while others use the stylet to create a hole and go inside the root (endoparasitic nematodes).

Plant-parasitic nematodes damage the root system of whatever they feed on. Because of the damage caused by these nematodes, the affected plant’s ability to gather water and nutrients from the soil is restricted. Roots that have been damaged by plant-nematodes may be exceptionally short and have a dark appearance or will be rotten. Many times the roots will look as though they have been cut off approximately one inch below the soil surface. Root galls or knots that are typically associated with nematode damage to most crops are not present on grasses.

Symptoms that may indicate high population densities of nematodes include yellowing, wilting, browning, or thinning out of grass. Extreme nematode stress will kill grass. Nematode damage causes the grass to thin and as the grass thins weeds begin to fill in the vacated areas. The damaged areas may enlarge and weeds will invade the enlarged area. The weeds that creep into the thinned out areas include spurge, sedge, and Florida parsley.

The damage caused by nematodes can be identified by irregularly shaped patches in the sod. Also, in sod farms, nematode damage can be associated with slow re-growth following a sod harvest. The presence of plant-parasitic nematodes in significant quantities can also be symptomatic of sod that doesn’t “hold together,” making harvest difficult if not impossible. However, the presence of the previously described symptoms does not rule out other factors such as localized soil conditions, the existence of fungal diseases, or insects. The most damaging nematode of all the plant-parasitic types is the sting nematode. This nematode damages all types of turf grasses including Bahiagrass.

It is critical that a nematode assay be conducted by a professional nematode diagnostic lab to be certain that the problem you are experiencing is as a result of nematodes. You must have an accurate diagnosis of the problem to be sure you are not wasting time, effort, and expense on the wrong problem. Also, you will be unnecessarily making a pesticide application that can harm the environment and your sod.

The EPA requires a manufacturer to submit data from approximately 150 tests before it will approve a product for use. Many times a company may spend millions of dollars to produce the pesticide label. Therefore, the user of the product would be wise to pay attention to it and use the product accordingly.

Because research is being conducted on a regular basis, information regarding pesticides is constantly being updated. Therefore, the user of pesticides should pay close attention to the label noting any changes and acting accordingly. The user of pesticides should read the label:

• Before purchasing the product to be sure it is the right one for the job
• Before mixing the pesticide to be sure it’s being used in the correct concentration
• Before applying the product to ensure that it is being used properly
• Before storing or disposing of the product

Pesticide labels can typically be divided into four major categories:

• Safety
• Environmental
• Product
• Use

The safety section of the label refers to such items as child hazard warning (“KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN”). Also, “signal words” are used in this section of the label. Signal words include “Danger”, “Poison”, or a “Skull and Crossbones.” All pesticides that are likely to cause acute illness through oral, dermal, or inhalation use the signal word “DANGER” and will also use the word “POISON” printed in red with the skull-and-crossbones symbol. If the product has the potential to cause skin and eye irritation potential it won’t have the word “POISON” or the skull-and-crossbones symbol. Highly toxic pesticides carry the word “DANGER” and must provide information to medical professionals should the user be improperly exposed to the product. Examples of the information supplied to the medical professionals involves what to do if the product is swallowed, gets in the user’s eyes, or if the product gets on skin. This section of the label also provides information about how to avoid improper use of the product and protective equipment and clothing that can help protect the product user.

The environmental section of the pesticide label explains the potential hazards of the product to non-target organisms or to the environment.

The product section of the label explains the following pesticide information:

• Its EPA use classification for either general use or restricted use
• The brand name of the product
• A statement of the ingredients in the pesticide
• The net contents of the product
• The EPA registration number
• The EPA establishment number
• The name and address of the manufacturer
• Special fire, explosion, or chemical hazards
• Limited warranty and disclaimer

Finally, the use section of the label describes:

• Directions for the pesticide’s use
• Storage and disposal of the product

A tailwater recovery system reuses water so that it can be returned to its original task. Relating to agriculture, it is a system that recovers irrigation water by using a drainage swale at the low point of an irrigated area and allows that water to be captured and reused for additional irrigation.

According to the University of California at Davis Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, it is best for the flow of water to be fast in a tailwater recovery system. The reason for this is that there is a greater chance that the absorption rate of water into the soil will be more uniform when the water is running quickly over the soil. Therefore, the water can be recovered and released again and again over the area to be irrigated with the final result being that the entire area gets a fairly uniform amount of water that is absorbed into the soil.

There are a number of ways the runoff water that is collected by the tailwater recovery system can be disposed of:

• The water is allowed to pond at the end of the irrigated field
• The water is allowed to flow into other fields that have not been irrigated
• The water is allowed to run off the field, collected, and discharged to a natural body of water
• The water is collected and pumped into a pond where it is not used again

Although establishing and maintaining a tailwater recovery system incurs costs of its own, the benefits to the environment and to the overall operation costs and efficiencies are immense. A tailwater recovery system minimizes the environmental impact of the runoff water, improves irrigation efficiency, reduces water costs, simplifies irrigation water management, and removes standing water that can cause damage to crops and resulting crop loss.

As a rule of thumb, the amount of tailwater that should be used in an irrigation system is 15% to 25% of the total volume of water used in the system.

Tailwater recovery systems vary depending on the size and scope of the project and the type of crop and field being irrigated. Costs also vary depending on the type of system used and the size of the project. Therefore, each application of a tailwater recovery system must be evaluated individually to arrive at which system is appropriate for the task at hand.

In 2010, Bethel Farms partnered with the South Florida Water Management District and the Natural Resources Conservation Service to construct a tailwater recovery and storage facility at Bethel Farms headquarters. Designed to subsidize 300+ acres of turf with irrigation water, the containment area of 5 acres has a maximum depth of 15′ and cost over $250,000 to build.

A similar system is now being installed at the County Line Farm on SE Notts Dairy Rd. in Arcadia, Florida. This project is part of the continuing effort to reduce groundwater consumption and improve water quality.

Turfgrass is dependent on weather for its survival. Different grasses require different conditions to thrive and if the weather changes too drastically, many grasses will die. Therefore, weather is a critical element for the well being of turfgrass and being informed about weather is essential for the professional whose livelihood depends on the health and well-being of their grasses.

Iowa State University is currently conducting research on turfgrass and the effects that topdressing and weather have on it. Iowa State University Assistant Scientist Marcus Jones has been conducting the study. Included in this study is the fact that desiccation has been occurring in the area that is under study. Desiccation is the degree of dryness or lack of rain that is present in the area under investigation.

Open Winter occurs when the temps are unseasonably mild and the snows of winter are held in abatement.

According to Jones, “Overall, temperatures have been above average since last October and this has prevented the ground from completely freezing in many parts of the state. Precipitation totals were above average for the month of December thanks in part to 3 rain events. It appears that nearly all of the precipitation that occurred in December was able to soak into the ground. This was a very welcome development over northwestern Iowa where severe drought conditions are still present.

“The threat of turf damage from desiccation is certainly elevated with the open winter we have experienced thus far. Dr. Christians provided a nice historical perspective of turf desiccation in his posts last week along with the benefits of late fall sand topdressing. We also took the opportunity to put out a couple sand topdressing trials last week to address this issue.”

Sand topdressing was applied to creeping bentgrass putting green turf exposed to northwest winds that had not received any topdressing for winter protection. Sand was applied at 1/16, 1/8, 1/4, and 1/2 inches. An untreated control was also included in the trial which received no sand topdressing.

Results from this trial should illustrate the benefits, if any, from mid-winter sand topdressing during “open” winters and how thick of a topdressing layer needs to be applied. The trial will be evaluated in the spring.

Jones expressed gratitude to Jewell Country Club Golf Course Superintendent Brian Abels and Briarwood Club of Ankeny Golf Course Superintendent James Legg for hosting the trials at their respective facilities.

Light.

Turfgrasses capture light energy and use it to produce compounds that can be stored in reserve for use at a later date. They produce carbohydrates through photosynthesis, the combination of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light. Photosynthesis cannot occur without an appropriate amount of light of specific (e.g., red, violet and blue) wavelengths. Aerial shoots of healthy, actively growing turfgrasses reflect green light, contributing to the turf’s color.

Temperature.

Turfgrass seed germination and growth are restricted to a specific range of temperatures. Turfgrass species are broadly categorized as warm-season or cool-season, depending on the temperatures at which they thrive. Creeping bentgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, ryegrasses and the fescues are cool-season turfgrasses. They are best adapted to air temperatures from 60 to 75 degrees F. Warm-season turfgrasses, including bermudagrass, centipedegrass, St. Augustinegrass and Zoysia, grow best at air temperatures from 80 to 95 degrees F. Warm season turfgrasses lose their color and are dormant during cold winter months.

Water.

Water moves from the soil solution into roots. Once inside plants, water helps protect them from sudden changes in temperature. Roots contain the least amount of water, and stems the most. Nutrients and sugars move through plants in water. Actively growing turfgrasses often contain more than 75 percent water on a dry-weight basis and use from 1/10 to 3/10 inch of water each day. An estimated 1 to 3 percent of the total amount of water taken up by turfgrasses every day is required for growth and development. The rest moves through the plants to the atmosphere. Warm-season turfgrasses have a very efficient photosynthetic system compared to the cool-season turfgrasses. Cool-season turfgrasses need about three times more water than warm-season turfgrasses to produce equal amounts of shoot and root tissue.

Atmospheric carbon dioxide.

The atmosphere contains several very important gases including nitrogen (~78 percent), oxygen (~21 percent) and carbon dioxide (~0.03 percent). Some plants (legumes) capture and use nitrogen from the atmosphere. Animals take in oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. Plants obtain carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide. Carbon, a component of amino acids, proteins, sugars and starch, is also found in the walls of plant cells.

Nutrition.

In addition to carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O), turfgrasses require at least 13 mineral nutrients for survival and seed production. Turfgrasses obtain the majority of each from the soil. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur (S) are classified as macronutrients according to the amount of each used by turfgrasses. Of these, N, P and K are primary essential nutrients. Calcium, Mg and S are secondary essential nutrients. Note that although the required quantity varies among the six macronutrients, each is equally important. The amount of each primary nutrient found in turfgrass tissue, in descending order, is N > K > P. Seven other essential nutrients are required in minor amounts. Boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo) and zinc (Zn) are essential minor or micronutrients. Most recently, nickel and sodium have received attention as essential micronutrients.

This article was reprinted in its entirety from The University of Tennessee Extension solely for educational purposes.

Other management practices to minimize cold damage are

Delay planting until spring or early summer. The roots of just-planted grasses are less developed and their shoot tissue is tenderer, therefore their overall stress tolerance is reduced.

Avoid late-season applications of nitrogen. It will promote shoot growth in the fall which will deplete carbohydrate reserves. Carbohydrate reserves help the grass regrow from any stress.

Apply potassium as the last fertilization of the year at a rate of ½ to 1 b. per 1,000 square feet. Potassium applied in the fall enhances cold tolerance and promotes earlier spring greenup.

Increase mowing height. This will produce deeper rooting which provides greater stress tolerance. It will also allow for production and storage of more carbohydrates late in the summer.

Don’t overwater. As grass goes into dormancy, water needs are reduced. Because cold damage may look like drought stress at first, people sometimes mistake it for such and increase watering.

To assess the extent of the damage, take several plugs 4 to 5 inch diameter plugs from the suspected areas and place them in a warm area, such as a greenhouse or a warm windowsill, for regrowth. Observe them for 30 days or until they resume growing. If there is no regrowth, or if it is sporadic, the area has sustained some degree of damage. If good regrowth occurs, little damage is assumed.

Most warm-season grasses have very poor cold tolerance ratings and enter a state of dormancy or a reduction in growth and metabolism in the fall. This state is maintained throughout the winter and although brown, dead shoot tissue may be evident, that doesn’t necessarily mean the grass will not recover. In fact, this natural state provides protection for the grass when exposed to cold temperatures.

The turf’s cold tolerance is also affected by the weather pattern preceding a severe frost. If the turf has been exposed to several frosts prior to a dramatic drop in temperature, it has been better conditioned to withstand extra cold temperatures. The frost conditions help to increase carbohydrates and proteins in the plants which enable the crown tissue to withstand a cold snap without severe membrane disruption.

Poor drainage, excessive thatch, reduced lighting, excessive fall nitrogen fertilization and a close mowing height are all cultural practices which tend to promote cold injury.

This prolific grower is often referred to by the common name of “Mexican clover” because the old flower head resemble spent red clover seed heads. Also known as largeflower pusley, it is a native to South America. A creeping herbaceous perennial rooting at the nodes, it reproduces by seeds and stem fragments.

Although it is not officially an invasive plant, it has become a big problem in many south Florida lawns, primarily St. Augustine lawns. The herbicide used to control largeflower pusley is Atrazine. We have discussed the use of Atrazine before, as it relates to ambient temperatures for proper application. Atrazine should not be applied when the temperature rises 88°F.

Atrazine in its granular form (usually blended with fertilizer and sold as a weed & feed product) is not of a sufficient concentration to control largeflower pusley. A liquid formulation with a 4.0% concentration should be used and several applications will be necessary, spaced several weeks apart.